# Thymosin alpha-1 References: Cited Studies and Reviews

> Thymosin alpha-1 references: the full citation list for every claim on this site — peer-reviewed trials, meta-analyses, pharmacokinetic studies, and regulatory documents.

PubMed and DOI links for the full set, each identifier verified against NCBI E-utilities and Crossref.

## About this reference list

Every quantitative claim on this site maps to a numbered entry below. The Thymosin alpha-1 reference list spans the foundational 1977 isolation work, the hepatitis B and C meta-analyses, the ETASS sepsis RCT and its meta-analytic follow-up, the Wuhan and Italian COVID-19 cohorts, the NSCLC mechanism and adjuvant reviews, the influenza-vaccine-adjuvant and post-transplant reconstitution trials, the pharmacology monograph, and the 2023–2025 review and preclinical-formulation literature. Every Digital Object Identifier (DOI) listed has been verified against the Crossref API and every PubMed identifier against the NCBI E-utilities esummary endpoint.

## Numbered citation list

See the references_index field for the full numbered list with DOIs and PubMed URLs.

## References

[1] Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, et al. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1977;74(2):725-729. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/265536/
[2] Dominari A, Hathaway Iii D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33362999/
[3] Garaci E. Thymosin alpha1: a historical overview. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:14-20. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17567941/
[4] Romani L, Bistoni F, Perruccio K, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16741252/
[5] Bozza S, Gaziano R, Bonifazi P, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates the TLR9/MyD88/IRF7-dependent murine cytomegalovirus sensing for induction of anti-viral responses in vivo. Int Immunol. 2007;19(11):1261-1270. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17804687/
[6] Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23327199/
[7] Li C, Bo L, Liu Q, Jin F. Thymosin alpha1 based immunomodulatory therapy for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2015;33:90-96. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25532482/
[8] Liu Y, Pan Y, Hu Z, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Reduces the Mortality of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 by Restoration of Lymphocytopenia and Reversion of Exhausted T Cells. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2150-2157. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32442287/
[9] Sun Q, Xie J, Zheng R, et al. The effect of thymosin α1 on mortality of critical COVID-19 patients: A multicenter retrospective study. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;90:107143. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33208294/
[10] Matteucci C, Minutolo A, Balestrieri E, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Mitigates Cytokine Storm in Blood Cells From Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2021;8(1):ofaa588. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33506065/
[11] Matteucci C, Minutolo A, Balestrieri E, et al. Thymosin alpha 1 restores the immune homeostasis in lymphocytes during Post-Acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Int Immunopharmacol. 2023;118:110055. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36989892/
[12] Yang YF, Zhao W, Xia HM, et al. Comparison of the efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 and interferon alpha in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B: a meta-analysis. Antiviral Res. 2008;77(2):136-141. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18078676/
[13] Yang YF, Zhao W, Zhong YD, Yang YJ, Cheng G, Hu LX, Wu JP. Treatment with lamivudine versus lamivudine and thymosin alpha-1 for e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B patients: a meta-analysis. Virol J. 2009;6:63. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19467157/
[14] Sherman KE, Sjogren M, Creager RL, et al. Combination therapy with thymosin alpha1 and interferon for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection: a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Hepatology. 1998;27(4):1128-1135. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9537454/
[15] Liang J, Cui R, Wang C, et al. Thymosin alpha-1 blocks the accumulation of myeloid suppressor cells in NSCLC by inhibiting VEGF production. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;131:110740. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32942159/
[16] Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. Thymosin alpha 1 - Reimagine its broader applications in the immuno-oncology era. Int Immunopharmacol. 2023;117:109952. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36871535/
[17] Moody TW. Thymosin alpha1 as a chemopreventive agent in lung and breast cancer. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:297-304. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17567944/
[18] Gravenstein S, Duthie EH, Miller BA, et al. Augmentation of influenza antibody response in elderly men by thymosin alpha one. A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1989;37(1):1-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2642497/
[19] Perruccio K, Bonifazi P, Topini F, et al. Thymosin alpha1 to harness immunity to pathogens after haploidentical hematopoietic transplantation. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1194:153-160. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20536464/
[20] Billich A. Thymosin alpha-1 [pharmacology monograph]. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2001;58(10):886-891. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11381492/
[21] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Thymosin alpha-1 (Tα1) related bulk drug substances — Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee briefing materials, December 4, 2024. https://www.fda.gov/media/183892/download
[22] Wan Y, Wang L, Chen X, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 therapy in moderate to critical COVID-19 patients: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Inflammopharmacology. 2023;31(6):3025-3038. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37845598/
[23] Yang Z, Zhu Y, Wang Z, Liu Y, Liu C. Thymosin alpha1 use in adult COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis on clinical outcomes. Int Immunopharmacol. 2023;114:109584. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36527881/
[24] Hu Z, et al. Exploiting the potential of in situ forming liquid crystals: development and in vitro performance of long-acting depots for peptide drug thymosin alpha 1 subcutaneous administration. Drug Deliv. 2025;32(1):2460708. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40066714/

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Chalked up, erased, and chalked back again — a classroom-style review of the published Thymosin alpha-1 literature, not a clinical recommendation.