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Reviews / Thymosin Alpha-1

REFERENCES 05 // SOURCE LIST

Thymosin alpha-1 references lead you to each source

Use the paper links to check each finding for yourself.

The source list covers each main finding

The first paper tells how researchers found Thymosin alpha-1 in 1977. Later papers cover hepatitis B and C, sepsis and COVID-19. You’ll also find work on lung cancer, flu shots and care after a transplant.

Drug reviews explain how the drug acts and how it was given. Papers from 2023–2025 cover newer reviews and a slow-release form tested in a dish. That last test didn’t involve people.

Each number on the site points to one entry below. The link opens a library page about the paper. There you can see a short summary and, when offered, the full paper.

The full paper list starts here

The full list appears below. Each link opens a library page. It names the study and may offer the full paper.

  1. Goldstein AL, Low TL, McAdoo M, et al. Thymosin alpha1: isolation and sequence analysis of an immunologically active thymic polypeptide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1977;74(2):725-729. ↗
  2. Dominari A, Hathaway Iii D, Pandav K, et al. Thymosin alpha 1: A comprehensive review of the literature. World J Virol. 2020;9(5):67-78. ↗
  3. Garaci E. Thymosin alpha1: a historical overview. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:14-20. ↗
  4. Romani L, Bistoni F, Perruccio K, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates dendritic cell tryptophan catabolism and establishes a regulatory environment for balance of inflammation and tolerance. Blood. 2006;108(7):2265-2274. ↗
  5. Bozza S, Gaziano R, Bonifazi P, et al. Thymosin alpha1 activates the TLR9/MyD88/IRF7-dependent murine cytomegalovirus sensing for induction of anti-viral responses in vivo. Int Immunol. 2007;19(11):1261-1270. ↗
  6. Wu J, Zhou L, Liu J, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha 1 for severe sepsis (ETASS): a multicenter, single-blind, randomized and controlled trial. Crit Care. 2013;17(1):R8. ↗
  7. Li C, Bo L, Liu Q, Jin F. Thymosin alpha1 based immunomodulatory therapy for sepsis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2015;33:90-96. ↗
  8. Liu Y, Pan Y, Hu Z, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Reduces the Mortality of Severe Coronavirus Disease 2019 by Restoration of Lymphocytopenia and Reversion of Exhausted T Cells. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71(16):2150-2157. ↗
  9. Sun Q, Xie J, Zheng R, et al. The effect of thymosin α1 on mortality of critical COVID-19 patients: A multicenter retrospective study. Int Immunopharmacol. 2021;90:107143. ↗
  10. Matteucci C, Minutolo A, Balestrieri E, et al. Thymosin Alpha 1 Mitigates Cytokine Storm in Blood Cells From Coronavirus Disease 2019 Patients. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2021;8(1):ofaa588. ↗
  11. Matteucci C, Minutolo A, Balestrieri E, et al. Thymosin alpha 1 restores the immune homeostasis in lymphocytes during Post-Acute sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Int Immunopharmacol. 2023;118:110055. ↗
  12. Yang YF, Zhao W, Xia HM, et al. Comparison of the efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 and interferon alpha in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B: a meta-analysis. Antiviral Res. 2008;77(2):136-141. ↗
  13. Yang YF, Zhao W, Zhong YD, Yang YJ, Cheng G, Hu LX, Wu JP. Treatment with lamivudine versus lamivudine and thymosin alpha-1 for e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B patients: a meta-analysis. Virol J. 2009;6:63. ↗
  14. Sherman KE, Sjogren M, Creager RL, et al. Combination therapy with thymosin alpha1 and interferon for the treatment of chronic hepatitis C infection: a randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Hepatology. 1998;27(4):1128-1135. ↗
  15. Liang J, Cui R, Wang C, et al. Thymosin alpha-1 blocks the accumulation of myeloid suppressor cells in NSCLC by inhibiting VEGF production. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;131:110740. ↗
  16. Costantini C, Bellet MM, Pariano M, et al. Thymosin alpha 1 - Reimagine its broader applications in the immuno-oncology era. Int Immunopharmacol. 2023;117:109952. ↗
  17. Moody TW. Thymosin alpha1 as a chemopreventive agent in lung and breast cancer. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1112:297-304. ↗
  18. Gravenstein S, Duthie EH, Miller BA, et al. Augmentation of influenza antibody response in elderly men by thymosin alpha one. A double-blind placebo-controlled clinical study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1989;37(1):1-8. ↗
  19. Perruccio K, Bonifazi P, Topini F, et al. Thymosin alpha1 to harness immunity to pathogens after haploidentical hematopoietic transplantation. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010;1194:153-160. ↗
  20. Billich A. Thymosin alpha-1 [pharmacology monograph]. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2001;58(10):886-891. ↗
  21. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Thymosin alpha-1 (Tα1) related bulk drug substances — Pharmacy Compounding Advisory Committee briefing materials, December 4, 2024. ↗
  22. Wan Y, Wang L, Chen X, et al. The efficacy of thymosin alpha-1 therapy in moderate to critical COVID-19 patients: a systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Inflammopharmacology. 2023;31(6):3025-3038. ↗
  23. Yang Z, Zhu Y, Wang Z, Liu Y, Liu C. Thymosin alpha1 use in adult COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis on clinical outcomes. Int Immunopharmacol. 2023;114:109584. ↗
  24. Hu Z, et al. Exploiting the potential of in situ forming liquid crystals: development and in vitro performance of long-acting depots for peptide drug thymosin alpha 1 subcutaneous administration. Drug Deliv. 2025;32(1):2460708. ↗